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Improvements in phonological awareness (ES = 0.51) and reading skills (ES = 0.44) were also found. Gains in spelling were maintained over time (ES = 0.53) and generalized to spelling when writing (ES = 0.94).

Increasing the amount of formal spelling instruction also proved beneficial (ES = 0.70). Results provided strong and consistent support for teaching spelling, as it improved spelling performance when compared to no/unrelated instruction (ES = 0.54) or informal/incidental approaches to improving spelling performance (ES = 0.43). An average weighted ES was calculated for each question and the quality of included studies was systematically evaluated. The corpus of 53 studies in this review included 6,037 students in kindergarten through 12th grade and yielded 58 effect sizes (ESs) that were used to answer eight research questions concerning the impact of formally teaching spelling on spelling, phonological awareness, reading, and writing performance. We conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of experimental and quasi-experimental studies to address these claims. During this and virtually all of the last century, some scholars have argued that spelling should not be directly or formally taught as such instruction is not effective or efficient.

Despite the importance of spelling for both writing and reading, there is considerable disagreement regarding how spelling skills are best acquired.

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